Budgets are primarily p ressure devices used by management to ensure Essay

Budgets are primarily p ressure devices used by management to ensure organisational objectives are achieved - Essay Example Some of the purposes of budgeting in the hotel industry include: - helping to plan work effectively; - assisting in allocating resources; - aiding in controlling resources during the budgeting period. Moreover, it is important to understand that a budget is developed to insure that management is working toward the same goal, with a knowledge base of the organizations' resources and constraints. Although strategic planning, budget forecasting, performance analysis are inclusive operations of the budgeting process; it is ultimately up to the financial analyst to determine whether the budget is guiding the company toward the achievement of its goals. Sometimes inefficiencies result due to poor integration of the finance and strategy. â€Å"Budgeting and performance are typically overseen by the finance department, whereas planning s coordinated by strategy department. Often, the two processes aren't well integrated, resulting in strategies that are often dictated by the budget process instead of vice versa† (Gary 2003). The reason for this could be that everyone involved may be attempting to accomplish the same goals, but also trying to make sure that the outcome will be beneficial to them, such as a substantial bonus or a reward. Although many companies implement this reward theory in an effort to increase organization effectiveness, this theory does not always work. According to Aranya, â€Å"participation may create intrinsic valences due to a tendency for individuals to become â€Å"ego† involved in decisions which they have contributed, and this affects their subsequent performance† (Aranya 2001). " (Aranya 2001). Forms of budgeting There are many forms of budgeting, but in the hotel industry "the first step in the budgeting process is to develop and communicate a set of broad assumptions about the economy, the industry, and the organizations strategy for the budget period" (Marshall, 2004). By establishing an operating and financial budget for a future period, management can identify problems in advance. This can be maintained by forecasting for future predictions. A forecast is a reflection of the future. When forecasting is taken into account, two key aspects to consider are cash budgets and sales forecast. The cash budget, usually 1 to 2 year increments, is a statement of the company's inflows and outflows of cash. It allows the company to estimate the short-term cash limitations, with attention to potential planning for excess cash or shortages. On the other hand, sales forecast estimates the monthly cash flows that will result from projected sales receipts, production and inventory. Management can also det ermine the level of fixed assets required to support the forecast level of sales and production. However, it is important to obtain reliable data. As a result, this data should be acquired by internal, as well as external means. The internal sales forecast is based on unison of sales forecast through the company's internal network. External forecast, on the other hand, is based on the relationship between the company sales and key external economic indicators. This means being able to identify how future economic events will affect the business as a whole. This includes looking at consumer outlook, inflation, and political events. Many companies are now implementing a new concept of rolling forecasts in an effort to reflect the most recent market trends. "Rolling forecasts have considerable merit. A forecast produced on a quarterly basis will

Insider Trading in India-an Analysis of Yesterday Essay Example for Free

Insider Trading in India-an Analysis of Yesterday Essay It also contained provisions prohibiting fraud related to securities trading. However, insider trading laws were mostly built with the support of US courtroom decisions. Ultimately, two legislations were enacted which specifically addressed the issue of insider trading, firstly, by the Insider Trading Sanctions Act, 1984 and secondly, by the Insider Trading and Securities Fraud Enforcement Act, 1988. ‘Utpal Bhattacharya and H. Daouk, in their study on insider trading, state that the jurisprudence on insider trading saw a rise from the 1990s, and only 81 countries out of 103 countries reviewed and had insider trading laws, while prosecution took place only in 38 countries. ’ In India, several committees were formed to check the applicability of the US regulations on Indian soil. The first committee which took the initiative to evaluate the regulations on short swing profit was PJ Thomas Committee, thereby introducing Sections 307 and 308 in the Companies Act, 1956. This basically requires the directors and managers of the company to make shareholding disclosures. However, such discloser requirements were still not enough to curb the nuisance and further deliberations were thought necessary over the matter. Hence, in 1979, Sachar Committee was formed, followed by the Patel Committee (1986) and finally Abid Hussain Committee (1989). All these three committees voiced out their opinion of having an immediate solution to the problem and advocated the need to have a separate law altogether on insider trading in stock market. Finally when the post liberalization period arrived, activities in the Indian stock market were at its peak and hence to acquire the necessary control over the domain, in 1992, the SEBI Act was introduced. The SEBI Act, 1992 in turn used its power to formulate a number of regulations and thus as one of those regulations, the SEBI (Insider Trading) Regulations was born. Later on, the said regulations were amended in 2002 and now it is known as the SEBI (Prohibition of Insider Trading) Regulations, 1992 (hereinafter â€Å"the insider regulations†). Since then, changes were made at least twice, one in 2002 and another in 2008. Jurisprudence behind Insider Trading Laws ‘Insider trading occurs when a corporate insider trades on information before it is disclosed to the general public. ’ The fundamental legal principle behind barring such an activity is that anyone who has acquired any kind of material or special information about a security in his fiduciary capacity should not be allowed to trade with the same security for his own benefit. In stock market, trust and confidentiality are two sides of the same coin. Investors invest their money based on the integrity of the market. Hence, to develop a healthy market, both prospective and current investors must feel secured to invest. Law in matters of tracking insider trading, could be of help in two ways, firstly, it could penalize those who engage in insider trading and secondly, it could create an incentive based system which would encourage disclosure of such activities. In past also, there have been catastrophic consequences where innocent public were robbed off their money because of few people who due to their greed jeaopardised the functioning of entire stock market. Stock market is a place where people expect simple demand and supply to influence the price of the securities. So when such prices are rigged, the investors start losing confidence, as a result either they start withdrawing money from the market or they end up not investing at all. This in turn stops the free flow of capital and other very important financial activities which could be very appalling for the economy. Description of Insider Trading as an Offence Laws related to insider trading in India are still in the nascent stage. The SEBI (Prohibition of Insider Trading) Regulations, 1992 gives a very detailed description of insider trading, however no where it has defined the term ‘Insider Trading’. For understanding the scheme of insider trading, there are four definitions which could help the various authorities to locate such an activity. The concept of ‘Insider Trading’ can be understood when the definitions of ‘insider’, ‘dealing in securities’, ‘price sensitive information’ and ‘connected persons’ are read together and understood in consonance with each other. The term ‘insider’ can be classified for convenience into at least two or more forms.

The Chrysalids: Perception is Molded by Environment Essay -- John Wynd

From the point of conception, a child’s feelings and thoughts are incredibly malleable. However, the question remains whether the environment changes our perception. This essay will delve into how perceptions are impacted by a North American lifestyle, and a lifestyle within the fictional world of The Chrysalids. Although a person has the ability to forge his or her own destiny, the environment plays a large part in shaping our perceptions everyday. Many throughout the world consider North America to offer the greatest quality of life. A myriad of nationalities and cultures have joined together resulting in North America being what it is today. This cultural patchwork has resulted in children being raised differently and developing unique perceptions relative to other countries. Variables that work to alter the American perception include family, education, and opportunities. One of the greatest influences on a person lis their family. For the duration of a person’s childhood, the majority of time is spent with family members. A family sustains a child’s livelihood and they work to determine how a child will mature in the hope of sustaining a successful future. Over this period, family members’ opinions and views wear off on the individual, causing a change in perception. Therefore, while maturing as a youth, family members hold a significant influence on sculpting a person’s perception. Another way in which perceptions can be altered is through education. Education is a building block for all of society; it is the foundation that establishes social interaction and it often determines a person’s future success. During the course of schooling and post secondary education, a person is introduced to an array of diffe... ...ths is limited. The result is a community where conventional thinking is readily accepted and rarely challenged. When comparing the North American society with that of the Waknuk society to determine whether the environment shapes our perception, the answer becomes transparent. Our perception is forever changing due to the environment. In everyday life our family, our education, and our opportunities change our perception. We do not know what is right until we learn alternative sources and develop an opinion on life. Through growing up, our family, education and experiences work to persuade our opinions and alter our perception in everything we do. Our perception can be changed through life as we grow, learn new ideas and gain new experiences, but through the duration of our childhood, our perception is molded into an everlasting building block for our future.

Cosmetic Surgery on Teenagers

Cosmetic surgery on teenagers Both texts, Valerie Ulene, â€Å"Plastic surgery for teens†, an article from Los Angeles Times website, January 12, 2009 and Camille Sweeney, â€Å"Seeking Self-Esteem Through Surgery†, an article from New York Times website, January 15, 2009, agree on the view on cosmetic surgery and query the idea of increased self-esteem to a certain point. Text 1, â€Å"Plastic surgery for teens†, focuses more on the surgery itself whereas text 2, Seeking Self-Esteem Through Surgery†, focuses more on the psychological part of cosmetic surgery.Even though they show two different sides of plastic surgery they still share some of the same statements of problems such as: which consequences surgery can lead to and which image issues teenagers’ face today. The fact that Diana Zuckerman, The president of the National Research center for Women and Families, appears in both articles makes them look alike in some cases, due to the similar chos en subjects. In text 1 Valerie Ulene emphasizes the issues of the modern world’s view on beauty and unrealistic ideals.These are some the primary problems that she discusses. In her discussion she actually refers to a study that shows no evidence of improved self-esteem after undergoing surgery. Valerie Ulene questions the surgeons, and that is where Dr. John Canedy, president of the American Society of Plastic Surgeons, comes in. Dr. John Canedy himself seems to have a critical view on cosmetic procedures among teens as well. He doesn’t exclude improved self-esteem, but he thinks that the surgeons should select the patients carefully and after long consideration.As I mentioned before text 2, â€Å"Seeking Self-Esteem Through Surgery†, focuses a lot on the beauty and psychological issues such as: celebrity obsession and makeover TV shows. Another person who shares some of the same views is Jean Kilbourne, the co-author of â€Å"So Sexy, So Soon†. He talks about the impossibilities of meeting the standards and values of beauty. Ann Kearney-Cooke, likes to characterize this phenomena as â€Å"an epidemic of low self-esteem among girls†.Diana Zuckerman, which appears in both articles, says that teens often forget or ignore the fact that they aren’t guaranteed a better life afterwards and that’s a big problem. Valerie Ulene engages the readers in several ways. One of the methods she uses in the text is to personalize it by referring to herself and her beauty problems, more specifically her nose. This is something that appears throughout the text. She even mentions her teen daughter: â€Å"With a 14-year-old daughter of my own, I recognize how difficult it can be†.By this she also refers to parents banning teen plastic surgery, and that engages the readers personally. Most people could probably relate to most of the problems Valerie Ulene talks about and has experienced. By choosing such a big issue she gets a lot of readers who are more likely to find the article interesting. Another method of engaging the readers is to strengthen the reliability. She does this by including several experts, who uses facts and creates different views: â€Å"there is really no data to suggest that it improves their overall body image or self-esteem†, as Diana Zuckerman comments.The data doesn’t only support the experts but it also supports the importance of these issues. The debate of banning plastic surgery for teens is an all time debate that keeps reappearing, maybe not much here in Denmark, but other places like Brazil, USA, UK etc. The arguments are mostly the same when it comes to issues like this: on one side banning it would be necessary in some cases; on the other side we live in a modern world where people can be held responsible for their actions.This is also the general view in this case. On one side we’ve got the Australian state of Queensland which finds it necessary to ban plastic surgeries for teens, like Dr. Pete Constantino says: â€Å"If they aren’t old enough to sign their own surgical consent for a medically necessary procedure, then they shouldn’t be able to induce their parent to do for cosmetic surgery†. Teenagers are incapable of making such a big decision at that age.On the other side: is that limiting teenagers’ needs both psychologically and physically? The question is whether the government should decide which values, morals and norms are correct. In this case the best thing is to bane cosmetic surgeries for teenagers. Your body is still developing, and most teenagers aren’t responsible enough to make such big decisions. ——————————————– [ 1 ]. Page 3, line 58. [ 2 ]. Page 2, line 26-17. [ 3 ]. Page 6, line 23-24.

Esperanza of The House on Mango Street Essay

The House on Mango Street is a collection of musings of a young female named Esperanza. The main character and the direction of the stories is revealed in the first story. It is in The House on Mango Street that Sandra Cisnero sets Esperanza up as a young girl dreaming of a brighter future and yet floored on the realities of her situation. The first story introduces Esperanza as someone who plans on escaping the place where she is growing up. She is old enough to understand that the promises of her parents about the temporariness of their house are not going to be fulfilled any time soon. She is, however, young enough to believe that physically leaving Mango Street will mean a complete escape from the things that Mango Street and their house represent. The youthfulness of Esperanza is shown in Hairs where she describes her family and herself through a description of the type of hair each had. She tells about still being comforted by her mother’s presence beside her in their bed. It is also in this story that one understands Esperanza’s personality. She is free-spirited and hard to tame, like her hair. But she is clearly in the process of developing into a woman as she expresses her emotions for her mother’s hair – the hair of a truly ladylike woman. Esperanza is shown here to be in the transitional period of developing from a child into a complete lady. She most probably would be in her teenage years. The emotional and personal development of Esperanza is also seen in My Name. When she speaks of not wanting to be like her grandmother – a woman beside the window, trapped – she shows that she is already capable of deciding for herself the future she wants to have. She also shows her knowledge about the outside world when she speaks of the Chinese culture and its possible similarities with the Mexican culture. She also shows a deeper understanding of society when she explains how Chinese culture and Mexican culture do not want their women strong which is why they do not give them strong names. Her reference to women being suppressed and kept from being strong also shows that she is aware of this bias. She is clearly developing emotionally because she can formulate for herself judgments about the things that occur in the society she lives in. In this part of the stories, My Name, Esperanza demonstrates development from being the young girl who dreams of escaping her house because she wants more space to the teen who wants change because she no longer agrees with the things around her. She wants to change her name insisting that it does not refer to the â€Å"real her†. She wants a life that is different from her grandmother’s. The aspirations of Esperanza in this part have developed. From a house with more bedrooms and bathrooms, Esperanza now aspires for more abstract concepts – independence, choice, freedom. In the final parts of the stories, Esperanza seems to have finally developed into a wiser and more practical woman. She realizes that escaping Mango Street is not something she can do physically for the moment. She decides to write instead. This allows her release from the frustrations she feels for the place she lives in. Esperanza understands now that Mango Street is a part of her life and will continue to be so even after she leaves it. She seems to have made peace with herself and instead of continually trying to push for a way out, she now focuses on ways to improve herself. This is, according to her, the way to finally be able to leave Mango Street. Her wisdom is seen when she states that only in leaving Mango Street, improving herself somewhere else, and coming back to Mango Street can she truly be able to help those who do not have the ability to leave. Her goals are now realigned to include those in her community. Esperanza completes her journey from childhood to young adulthood in the pages of The House on Mango Street. She forms a clearer view of who she really is through her experiences in her house and grows emotionally as well. The maturity of Esperanza is seen not only in her thoughts but in the observations she has made from her neighborhood. She has learned from the lives of those around her and has grown from the lessons she gathered.

10 Tips for Constructive Correspondence

10 Tips for Constructive Correspondence 10 Tips for Constructive Correspondence 10 Tips for Constructive Correspondence By Mark Nichol Business writing, or any communication for other than personal reasons, requires a higher standard of compositional conduct. Whether you are requesting service or complaining about it, or applying for a job or responding to an applicant, correspondents have certain expectations about how you approach them. Keep the following suggestions in mind the next time you craft a letter or an e-mail message. 1. Outline Rehearse what you have to say by making an outline or simply listing the points you wish to emphasize. If you have difficulty articulating your thoughts in writing, simplify your language; you can always make your message more sophisticated later (or not). â€Å"I want to know what you meant when you wrote (blank). Your letter was confusing because (blank)† is a good foundation on which to lay a lead-off such as â€Å"Please clarify your request in your letter about (blank). I was confused by the reference to (blank).† 2. Subject If you’re sending a letter, you need not state the subject of the correspondence as if it were a memo. But if the correspondence is an e-mail message, make the subject line meaningful. â€Å"Request for Purchase Records,† for example, is more likely to receive prompt attention than â€Å"Information Needed.† 3. Greeting Use the salutation â€Å"To Whom It May Concern† followed by a colon, not a comma only when all else fails. (â€Å"Dear Sir or Madam† is a relic of a bygone era.) If you cannot identify in advance the person to whom you should direct your correspondence (or someone who can direct you or your letter or e-mail message to the proper person), you are either writing to a bureaucracy or a business that does not value its constituents or customers and steadfastly resists your efforts to identify a specific recipient, or you have not made much of an effort to do so. 4. Intimacy and Impartiality If you are initiating contact with the recipient, refer to him or her, for example, as Mr. Smith or Ms. Jones; if the person’s gender is unclear from his or her name, address the recipient with the salutation â€Å"Pat Johnson,† followed by a colon. If you are replying, maintain a formal tone in your salutation if the recipient signed his or her initial correspondence with a full name; if, however, he or she signed off with â€Å"Pat,† for example, feel free to use the first name alone in the salutation of your response, and sign your letter or e-mail message informally. Be cautious, however, about being too intimate or personal in communicating with someone you don’t know or know only casually, or of assuming that the other person has certain political, ideological, or religious beliefs, even if the recipient’s affiliation implies sympathy with your own values. Remain professional even on a first-name basis or after one or more face-to-face encounters. 5. Leading Off State the purpose of the correspondence immediately. If you are thanking someone for a service rendered, say so outright and then go into details. If you are requesting service or clarification, do so at the outset. If you have a complaint or grievance, begin by describing the matter. 6. Tone Use respectful language. If you are angry or frustrated or disappointed, it is appropriate to write just that, but do not attack the recipient or the recipient’s company or organization. Simply detail your grievances and state what you would like the recipient to do to resolve the issue. Be confident and/or firm, but take care that you do not come across as arrogant, condescending, or demanding, and above all, even if you are writing a complaint or protest, be courteous. 7. Perspective Effective correspondence recognizes the proper point of view or emphasis. A letter or e-mail message of complaint that starts out â€Å"Your store has lousy service† may prompt the same results as â€Å"I wish to complain about the poor service I received at your store yesterday,† but it’s rude. Rather than making a blanket and perhaps inaccurate assumption, simply describe your experience and stick to the facts. If you’re seeking employment, or asking for a favor, emphasize the recipient, not yourself. You will of course state what you have to offer the company or what you would like to receive from it, but put the recipient first: â€Å"World Wide Widgets is highly regarded in the widget industry, and my professional goal is to start at the top† is more appealingly audacious than â€Å"I believe that I have much to offer World Wide Widgets.† 8. Language Write in a professional tone, but avoid stiffly formal wording. Use clear, concise language that conveys your message. Spell out acronyms, eschew abbreviations, and favor transparent terms over jargon and standard usage over slang. 9. Form and Length Monitor and minimize sentence and paragraph length. If the recipient becomes fatigued because of overlong sentences and blocky paragraphs (or obtuse language or error-ridden text), you are less likely to achieve the desired outcome. Review your correspondence not only for errors but also for excessive length. A letter or e-mail message that continues for more than a few paragraphs of a few lines each is likely to be a self-defeating message. Respect your recipient by rereading your correspondence several times, looking for opportunities to make your message more concise, omit redundancy, and eliminate superfluous content. 10. Conclusion In closing, concisely restate the purpose of the letter, and specify the results you hope for. Write something like â€Å"Please provide the requested information† or â€Å"Please clarify what I need to submit, and when, so that I may satisfy your request.† If your request is constrained by a tight deadline, try to communicate, if applicable, how a prompt response will benefit your recipient, or other parties, as well as you. If you are in no hurry and the person will be doing you a favor, tack on a relaxing phrase such as â€Å"at your convenience.† In either case, remember to thank the recipient, but be sure that your gratitude is sincere and not overbearing or stinting. â€Å"Thanking you in advance,† for example, implies that you can’t be bothered to follow up with a note of gratitude after the recipient has complied with a request. â€Å"Thank you† is sufficient. Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Business Writing category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:100 Whimsical WordsRound vs. AroundDrama vs. Melodrama

Accepting Complements

Accepting Complements Accepting Complements Accepting Complements By Mary There are a number of words that people have a hard time keeping straight. Usually these words sound alike, but have very different meanings. For instance, should you say Please accept my complement! or Please accept my compliment!? Accept or Except? Accept is to take or receive something, while except means something is left out. I am proud to accept this award. Everyone except Jim was at the party. Complement or Compliment? Complement is something that complements something else or goes well with it, while compliment is a praise. The new chair is the perfect complement to the rest of the furniture in the room. My boss complimented my performance in the new account presentation. The next time you are including these words in your writing, stop and reflect on the true meaning of the sentence so that you can be sure you made the right choice! Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Misused Words category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:Program vs. ProgrammeOne Fell SwoopHow Do You Pronounce "Often"?

Spectroscopy Definition and Difference vs Spectrometry

Spectroscopy Definition and Difference vs Spectrometry Spectroscopy is the analysis of the interaction between matter and any portion of the electromagnetic spectrum. Traditionally, spectroscopy involved the visible spectrum of light, but X-ray, gamma, and UV spectroscopy also are valuable analytical techniques. Spectroscopy can involve any interaction between light and matter, including absorption, emission, scattering, etc. Data obtained from spectroscopy is usually presented as a spectrum (plural: spectra) that is a plot of the factor being measured as a function of either frequency or wavelength. Emission spectra and absorption spectra are common examples. How Spectroscopy Works When a beam of electromagnetic radiation passes through a sample, the photons interact with the sample. They may be absorbed, reflected, refracted, etc. Absorbed radiation affects the electrons and chemical bonds in a sample. In some cases, the absorbed radiation leads to the emission of lower-energy photons. Spectroscopy looks at how the incident radiation affects the sample. Emitted and absorbed spectra can be used to gain information about the material. Because the interaction depends on the wavelength of radiation, there are many different types of spectroscopy. Spectroscopy Versus Spectrometry In practice, the terms spectroscopy and spectrometry are used interchangeably (except for mass spectrometry), but the two words dont mean exactly the same thing. Spectroscopy comes from the Latin word specere, meaning to look at, and the Greek word skopia, meaning to see. The ending of spectrometry comes from the Greek word metria, meaning to measure. Spectroscopy studies the electromagnetic radiation produced by a system or the interaction between the system and light, usually in a nondestructive manner. Spectrometry is the measurement of electromagnetic radiation to obtain information about a system. In other words, spectrometry can be considered a method of studying spectra. Examples of spectrometry include mass spectrometry, Rutherford scattering spectrometry, ion mobility spectrometry, and neutron triple-axis spectrometry. The spectra produced by spectrometry arent necessarily intensity versus frequency or wavelength. For example, a mass spectrometry spectrum plots intensity versus particle mass. Another common term is spectrography, which refers to methods of experimental spectroscopy. Both spectroscopy and spectrography refer to radiation intensity versus wavelength or frequency. Devices used to take spectral measurements include spectrometers, spectrophotometers, spectral analyzers, and spectrographs. Uses Spectroscopy can be used to identify the nature of compounds in a sample. It is used to monitor the progress of chemical processes and to assess the purity of products. It can also be used to measure the effect of electromagnetic radiation on a sample. In some cases, this can be used to determine the intensity or duration of exposure to the radiation source. Classifications There are multiple ways to classify types of spectroscopy. The techniques may be grouped according to the type of radiative energy (e.g., electromagnetic radiation, acoustic pressure waves, particles such as electrons), the type of material being studied (e.g., atoms, crystals, molecules, atomic nuclei), the interaction between the material and the energy (e.g., emission, absorption, elastic scattering), or specific applications (e.g., Fourier transform spectroscopy, circular dichroism spectroscopy).

Education Reform Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Education Reform - Term Paper Example â€Å"The dropout rate is also higher in both rural and inner-city areas, where young people lack cultural and financial resources.† (Macionis,2006). The reports have dealt with the growing problems of providing quality education amongst the quantifiable mass. The High School reforms reports speaks about the increasing dropout rates from high schools where students are opting for jobs rather than colleges for higher education. The report gives an insight into the fact that as students prepare in high schools for entry into colleges, does the same preparedness apply when they want to opt for a job. One third of a nation report speaks about the alarming dropout rates of the students which have been measured to be a one third of the entire student population and hence one third of a nation. The closing of the Education Frontier report also highlights the quantifiable figures who are opting out of high schools and colleges which have made the people to remove their blindfold that educational reforms are taking place. Statistics have shown the people the real face of the state of education which is definitely a cause of concern. The fourth report of the twin challenges of mediocrity and inequality gives a comparative overview of the state of literacy over 20 countries of equal or high income where the US is ranked 9th in terms of literacy levels. There are serious questions asked whether the education reform is actually bringing in reform just as the policies are being formed in the legislature. The fifth report of hard facts in education reform addresses the fact that tests cannot be benchmarks of deciding whether there have been educational reforms or not, there has to be a proper planning and implementation strategies which will govern reforms and whether it is actually achieved or not. Part two: analyze all reports individually. is it working? The High School Reforms: Facing Labor Market Realities This report gives a lot of impetus on the fact that since students are already opting for jobs rather than colleges after their high schools, then are they having the necessary academic background and knowledge that they can draw higher incomes as compared to those who are getting their bachelor’s degree. The employers need to give their inputs of what knowledge level they expect from the high school graduates and there is a need for serious analysis into it which has not been addressed. Labor Market realities are not working currently but there is a need for the practical job industry to give their inputs to shape up the work executives of tomorrow. â€Å"This report summarizes studies of what employers say they are looking for when they hire for jobs that do not require college degrees.† (Barton,2006). One-Third of a Nation: Rising Dropout Rates and Declining Opportunities This report gives out the statistics that the school dropout rates have been rising alarmingly across the United States. â€Å"The High School Completio n Rate has been Falling. Nationally, after peaking at 77.1 percent in 1969, the rate dropped to 69.9 percent in 2000.† (Barton,2005). â€Å"In high school completion rates, the United States has slipped to 10th place in the world.†(Barton,2005). There have been models like talent development, Maryland’s Tomorrow, Communities in Schools and Quantum opportunity programs which has assisted in retaining the students. Though these models have

The Interests and the Freedom of the Members of Society Essay

The Interests and the Freedom of the Members of Society - Essay Example Sneakers, on the other hand, is a 1992 film starring Robert Redford as Martin Bishop. For 20 years, Bishop has done what he could to evade the arm of the law and has established a new identity for him. Knowing that he had not done anything wrong and that he was just wrongly accused, Bishop works to secure his freedom. The movie is about Bishop and his team of sneakers and a code breaker box they have been blackmailed into stealing. Failure to do so will mean that Bishop’s real identity will be revealed to authorities and may eventually lead to his capture. Several turns in the plot occur, the biggest one being that the Bishop finds himself in a situation where he can finally erase his bad record which will inevitably lead to his complete freedom. In the end, Bishop and his group develop a plan to make sure that no group makes use of the code breaker and at the same time ensure that Bishop remains free and all other members get what they’ve always dreamt of. As previousl y mentioned, freedom is a central theme in both works of art discussed. As with Valjean, Bishop makes use of all means possible to preserve his freedom. Both main characters are evading authorities determined to catch them. In fact, both Valjean and Bishop established new identities for themselves in order to avoid being arrested. Such a similarity exists because both stories focus on the lives of men on the run. Both show how protecting one’s freedom sometimes entails running away and turning one’s back on his past.

Wellness Promotion Project. Assessment of the Utica-Rome, NY community Essay

Wellness Promotion Project. Assessment of the Utica-Rome, NY community - Essay Example Assessment of the Utica-Rome, NY community A later Gallup poll in USA Today puts the Utica-Rome region fourth in a standing of urban communities where individuals have the most heart strike. The main poll puts that stacked up progressively at danger were the Huntington-Ashland region in West Virginia; the Davenport-Moline Rock Island in Iowa and Fort Smith in Arkansas. The study discovered that expansive amounts of individuals here are corpulent, and smoke, however that yet little numbers practice customarily. A nearby interventional cardiologist says that patients he sees in his office don't repudiate those discoveries, however he additionally sees numerous sound patients in their 90s since they settle on solid life decisions. That's the focus needed to drive home, that you have a say in which sort of fact you come to be. Coronary illness is a preventable infection and you can change your result. You can change the detail. It's not a miserable try. Individuals can have an enormous e ffect and we need to truly change. Practice is vital, however how we consume, what we consume is as well. Literature Review The Gallup Study First of all, what is the Gallup poll? For more than 70 years, Gallup has built its reputation on delivering relevant, timely, and visionary research on what humans around the world think and feel. Using impeccable data, our advisers assist leaders  in  identifying and monitoring critical economic and behavioral indicators that are vital to their strategic plans. The study discovered that the occurrence of high circulatory strain in the Utica-Rome range was higher than the national normal. The study additionally said that about a full third of individuals in the region are corpulent, and more than a quarter, smoke (Ships, 2013). Heart illness, which causes heart strike, is the heading explanation for expiration in the United States. More than 700,000 Americans show some kindness assault every year. As per the Gallup-Healthways twelve-month well-being study, a few US metropolitan locales have much higher rates of heart strike than whatever is left of the nation. Broadly, an expected 4% of American mature people reported surviving a heart assault. Occupants of Utica-Rome, NY metropolitan locale were more than twice as liable to endure the same destiny (Mendez, 2013). In view of Gallup and Healthways information for US metropolitan factual ranges, 24/7 Wall St. audited the urban areas with the most noteworthy rates of heart ambushes. Managing director of Gallup.com said that by and large, occupants living in metro zones with high rates of heart strike likewise battle progressively with incessant health issues like high circulatory strain, heftiness, and diabetes. In Utica-Rome, NY, the top district in the nation for heart ambushes, an expected 43.3% of overviewed grown-ups reported experiencing high circulatory strain, compared to only 27.6% of grown-ups across the nation. The territory was additionally in the top five f or high cholesterol and stoutness (Mendez, 2013). Mendes clarified that Gallup has noted a relationship between low income and weakness, incorporating heart strike. Part of this may have to do with access to quality mind, weakness propensities identified with an absence of training or competitive, solid sustenance. In view of the latest Census information, the majority of the metro regions with the most elevated danger of coronary illness had average family unit incomes beneath the US figure of $50,502. In the meantime, the greater part of the 10 territories with

Philosophy of Assessment Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

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American History - 13 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words - 1

American History - 13 - Essay Example Reagan actively supported anti-communist struggles in Afghanistan and Central America. In his second term, Reagan softened his stand and negotiated with Gorbachev, agreeing to scale back the arms race. His 1987 speech in West Germany, â€Å"Mr. Gorbachev, Tear Down This Wall† was a clarion call for the end of the Cold War. A series of summits and treaties, in collaboration with Gorbachev, including the INF, drastically reduced Cold War tensions. Mikhail Gorbachev, who came to power in 1985, attempted to reform the USSR’s failing economy, and repressive political system, through his policies of glasnost (openness) and perestroika (restructuring). Ronald Reagan yielded his hard-line stance largely because of Gorbachev’s overtures He openly promoted a new international order free of Cold War competition. In 1989, Gorbachev signed the START I Treaty, ending the Cold War. His permissive attitude led to the dissolution of the USSR in 1991. George H. W. Bush only concluded the process initiated by Reagan and Gorbachev. East-West tensions continued to subside and Bush signed the START I arms control treaty in Moscow in 1989. Following this, Bush, along with Gorbachev, formally announced the end of the Cold War at the Malta Summit. The Berlin Wall, symbol of the Cold War, came down in November 1989, and communist governments in the erstwhile Soviet Union were progressively replaced by democratically elected governments. 1. 30-5. The Supreme Court judgment in Edwards vs. Aguillard (1987) is significant as a testament to the need for a strong judiciary to keep the legislature in check. It demonstrates the attempt made by the Christian Right to impose its belief on impressionable school children and destroy the secular fabric of society, by equating the theory of evolution with the theory of intelligent design as valid theories. It exposes the guise of academic freedom assumed in order to impose religious beliefs. Creationism is unequivocally defined as

Philosophy of Assessment Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Philosophy of Assessment - Term Paper Example This essay considers my personal philosophy of assessment. One of the primary considerations I recognize in terms of assessment is developing a means of judging student participation and effort throughout the marking periods and course. One of the primary challenges I had when originally considering assessment was the nature of developing assessment strategies that are student specific, or measure objective standards of comprehension. While ideally classrooms are constituted by students of the same level of achievement, in reality this is not always the case. Early in my teaching career I recognized that I would have to make the difficult decision of requiring all students to achieve the same level of achievement. From this foundational level I then began to design assessment strategies that required students to achieve an objective standard of accomplishment. In these regards, I have been greatly influenced by constructivist theory of assessment, specifically a text Understanding by Design. This text contends that assessment should be designed from a top-down structure with the end goal in mind. Working from this theory, each semester I considered the ultimate objective for the course and then worked back from that in developing assessment strategies that would work as standards bearers for the marking period. Still, I recognize that this approach to assessment should only be used to construct a general approach to curriculum development. As is later demonstrated, the most effective instruction and assessment will consider the learner’s background knowledge and phenomenological grasp of the learning material in developing dynamic and multi-varied assessment mechanisms. In addition to these constructivist approaches to assessment, I have become more directly acquainted with direct methods of assessment. It’s indicated that one of the primary such means of demonstrating direct assessment strategies is through the teacher’s active involvement in student learning. In these regards, â€Å"the teacher a) presents information, b) develops concepts through lecture, c) requires students to recite or respond to questions, d) provides feedback and reteaching as necessary† (Payne 63). In terms of my own assessment strategies, I implement direct methods in a variety of ways. After determining the end of course objective I would then break down the marking period into manageable units (chapters). Within each of these units (chapters) there would be a final exam and quizzes. The quizzes were implemented in large part as a means of motivating students to remain consistent with scholastic work throughout the chapter. In these regards, oftentimes I approached quiz grades with a more lenient approach than I did the chapter tests. The student quiz scores also functioned to aid me in identifying areas of student progress that are more in need of attention. Indeed, student quiz assessment was a learning process for the students as well, giving them an early idea of elements of the text that they must further study. With the final exam then students had to demonstrate their mastery of the material. Rather than functioning as a learning aid, the final exam existed solely for the purpose of measuring the student’s achievement in relation to the objective progress they made within the specific unit. Through research I have discovered a

Information management system Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Information management system - Essay Example ............12 Information Management System –  Google Plus Executive summary The advancements that have been made in technology over the years have led to a change in the ways that organizations conduct their business activities, with new methods and practices having been introduced in this neo modern era as a result. Whereas many functions were mostly handled manually or at least supervised thus in the past, the progress that has been made in the software and hardware industry have allowed for more mechanized responsibility to take over. This has proved to be more efficient and accurate in terms of capability and companies are beginning to realize the importance of inducting their organizations to this technological revolution. Among the various advancements that have been made in this era is the creation of Information Management Systems. These are one of the more popular inventions to enter the various industries and have proved to be a great success in the various field s in which they have been applied. A thorough study of the various models available to an organization serves to educate the company on the best strategy to implement according to their particular needs. Introduction Information management systems can be described as a collection of both hardware and software combined with the ability to receive and filter raw data and then process and use it to create new data relevant to certain organization.. The ability of Information Systems (IS) to perform these tasks has made life a whole lot easier for organizations operating on the basis of large amounts of different types of information flowing within and without the company in order for it to function efficiently. What previously took a lot of man power and hard labor can now be done in a span of minutes as the Information Systems are able to calculate needed equations at a considerably faster rate than man. As a result, these Information Systems have now occupied a strategic role in cont emporary business  Ã‚   organizations that now use them to build sustainable competitive advantages over their rivals as they try to maintain an edge above the rest of their peers in the industry. Conceptual framework Google is one such company that can be used as an example of the importance of Information Systems in the new age business (Google). As this organization started out as a search engine, it can be said that information was the forte that it dealt with and this is something that is still needed to date not only in their original business, but in their in-house activities as well. The organizational strategy of the company can thus said to be the future expansion of its influence on the social network market through the introduction of new and unique services within Google Plus to attract new clientele. Before one studies the various Information Systems that are used by the company and the various advantages that they bring to the table however, it is essential to first try and understand the strategy that they have undertaken within the market to ensure that they maintain their competitive edge and are not usurped by their rivals (McKeen & Smith 89). This can be done using the Michael Porter’

Womens Political Participation in Afghanistan Essay Example for Free

Womens Political Participation in Afghanistan Essay â€Å"As a global trend, rising number of women in politics will indicate that human beings are making progress towards a more humane world-not because women are necessarily more humane than men, but because any society that categorically excludes half of its members from the process by which it rules itself will be ruled in a way that is less than fully human† Kathlene Introduction The world over women are struggling to break the shackles that bind them challenging the unequal distribution of power in society. Transforming the existing in egalitarian pattern of gender relationships necessitates leadership in the state, markets and civil society- the key centers of power in the present globalizing economy. It is, therefore, imperative for women to be in the corridors of power and have the power to negotiate a better deal for themselves, if they are to influence policy decisions which have an impact upon them. Empowerment of women in all spheres, in particular the political sphere is crucial for their advancement and foundation of a gender-equal society. It is central to the achievement of the goals of equality, development and peace. Women’s political empowerment is premised on â€Å"three fundamental and non-negotiable principles: a) the equality between women and men; b) women’s rights to self representation and self determination.†(1) In empowerment, the key indeed is ‘power’; it is power to ‘access, ‘control’ and make ‘informed choices’. According to the Jakarta declaration â€Å"empowerment of women is not only an equity consideration, it was also a necessary precondition for sustainable economic and social development. Involvement of women in the political arena and in decision-making roles in an important tool for empowerment as well as monitoring standards of political performance.† (2)The application of the philosophical underpinnings of Jakarta Declaration are necessary ,because in the countries where women have gained near equal representation such as in Scandinavian countries, they have begun to alter the very nature of politics. Women are, however, virtually invisible in the political sphere. The notions of a distinct public/political sphere have been used to legitimize the exclusion of women from the public sphere. Under-representation or invisibility of women in decision-making reinforces their deprivation, leading to an unequal distribution of resources, neglect of their interests, needs, perspectives and priorities and no say in policy making. Their voices fall on deaf ears, and as Alida Brill vehemently insists, â€Å"without our own voices being heard inside the government arenas and halls of public policy and debate, we are without the right of accountability _ a basic entitlement of those who are governed â€Å".(3) To effectuate feminization of politics a critical mass of women in the decision-making bodies is yet to emerge. The substantial gains made by the women’s movement over the decades, are not adequately reflected in representation of women in positions of power. The 30 percent target of women’s representation fixed by the Economic and Social Council is not included in the International Development Targets. (4) The world average of women in legislative bodies continues to be merely 12-13 percent; only a few countries have 30 percent or more women in decision-making posts. (5) According to the United Nations Division for the advancement of women (UNDAW), Fact sheet on women in government of 1996, the percentage of women in both ministerial and sub-ministerial levels ranges from 0 percent (in about 15 countries, to 30 percent in 2 countries. 15 countries had 0 percent of women in governmental positions in 1996, out of which 8 were Arab countries. According to the Inter-Parliamentary Union (IPU) statistics, from 1945 to 1995, the percentage of women MPs worldwide has increases four-fold. Their latest statistics indicate that, in 2000, the world average of women in parliaments (both houses combined) is 13.8 percent. The regional variations, however, are significant. The highest percentage of women in parliaments in the Nordic countries at 38.8 percent, followed by Europe (including the Nordic countries) at 16.0 percent, Americas at 15.5 percent, Asia at 15.0, Europe OSCE member countries (excluding the Nordic countries) at 14.1 percent, Sub-Saharan Africa at 11.6 percent, Pacific at 8.3 percent and the lowest in the Arab states at 3.3 percent. (6) Among the individual countries Sweden ranks first with 44.7%percent of women in Parliament, followed by Denmark at 39.1%percent and Finland at 36.5 percent. Afghanistan ranks 37 With mere a 27.7% Percent of women in parliament. It is noteworthy that at least 9 states including Kuwait and United Arab Emirates have no women in Parliament. Given this factual background , there is a need for examining the existing power structures, the extent of women’s participation in the political process and suggest measures to increase the ‘critical mass’ or the member of women in politics, thereby paving the way for transformative politics. The issue is vast and to attempt to compress it within the confines of one paper is like putting an ocean into a jar. The present paper attempts to identify some of the key issues relating to women’s political empowerment, thereby helping to clarify and advance the debate. There are no claims here to produce an exhaustive analysis. The paper, keeping in view editorial guidelines, is structures along the following lines: * A review of international actions for women’s empowerment * A n overview of national efforts * Analyze the challenges faced by women in attaining de facto equality in Afghanistan * Identify future steps to enhance women’s political participation International Initiative for women’s empowerment The question of women’s political participation is now on the international agenda, and permeating many regional and national plans of action. Much hope has been invested in the United Nations and it has consistently been the engine for keeping the gender issues on political rights of women in 1952.Since 1975 four international conferences on women have been held under its auspices; all the conferences have emphasized women’s political empowerment as a key concern. (7) The issue of women’s political empowerment, while attracting considerable attention earlier, actually came to the forefront of the global debate for women’s rights at the time of Fourth World Conference on women held at Beijing in 1995.Henceforth, the issue continued to hold centre-stage of all discussions on gender justice and equality. Women’s equal access to, and full participation in decision- making was emphasized in the platform for action, as one of the critical areas of concer n. It unequivocally declared, â€Å"Women’s equal participation in political life plays a pivotal role in the general process of the advancement of women. women’s equal participation in decision-making is not only a demand for simple justice or democracy but can also be seen as a necessary condition for women’s interests to be taken into the account† .(8) A detailed set of recommendations were issued therein to all governmental and non-governmental communities, nationally and internationally , to enhance women’s political participation and decision-making.it recommended governmental commitment to gender balance in all spheres, reform of electoral systems, monitoring and evaluation of progress in women’s representation, revamping of party structures to remove barriers to women’s political participation, incorporation of gender issues and initiatives in the agenda of political parties, affirmative action, create or strengthen mechanisms to monitor women’s access to senior levels of decision-making among others. (9) it affirmed that women should have at least a 30 percent share of decision-making positions. However, recommendations are exactly that; they rarely, if ever, can be enforced with full authority and extent of law. Women’s political participation was equally focused upon at the Asia Pacific Regional NGO Symposium (1999) held in Thailand on the theme ‘Asia Pacific Women 2000: Gender Equality Development and Peace for the Twenty-first Century† too focused on women’s political participation as one of the critical areas of concern recognized in BPFA. It noted the gains but recognized that power structures continue to be dominated by men; women’s representation continues to be low and recommended that timeframes be set and monitors to meet assigned quotas on women’s representation in politics. Women’s Environment and Development Organization (WEDO) has launched a campaign for 50-50, that is, equal representation. This brief review reveals that women’s political empowerment is at the centre-stage of all discourse on women’s issues at the international level. Corresponding to the international efforts, various initiatives have been/ are being taken for the purpose at the national level too. Women political empowerment in Afghanistan The status of women in Afghanistan has been of deep concern since they were stripped of their fundamental rights under Taliban rule. Today, The Asia Foundation works to promote opportunities for Afghan girls and women through collaboration with a broad range of local partners, including government agencies and influential non-state actors, including civil society, and tribal and religious leaders. The Foundation provides growing support for girls to access education and programs that increase women’s economic participation and access to justice. The Foundation is helping build the capacity of the Ministry of Women’s Affairs to be an effective advocate for policy reform and provision of services to women. Although Afghan women still face significant challenges, there have been some notable achievements, including a national constitution that guarantees women’s equal rights, the adoption of the National Plan of Advancement of Women of Afghanistan 2008-2018, and the growth of civil society organizations working to advance women’s rights and deliver much-needed services for women. There has also been significant progress in getting girls, who were banned from attending school under the Taliban, enrolled in public schools. Today, more than two million girls attend school, representing 35 percent of the total K-12 student population, and women’s university enrollment is also increasing. Four hundred women contested the 2010 parliamentary elections and for the first time, women served as election observers in all 34 provinces in Afghanistan. According to Women’s â€Å"Empowerment† in Post Conflict Afghanistan, After decades of war, among the many challenges of post-war reconstruction in Afghanistan, is women’s â€Å"empowerment†. But what does â€Å"Empowerment† mean? â€Å"Empowerment† is a very dynamic and context dependent concept. It can be conceived on different levels and domains, as debated by different development agents and feminists (Afshar, 1998). However, in feminist discourse, â€Å"power† is de fined in a more relational form. It is not defined in isolation but in consideration of the role and relationship of women with women, men and the wider community. The emphasis is not on the â€Å"power over†, as observed by Rowland (1998), which is a more traditional interpretation of â€Å"empowerment†. Rowland reflects on different interpretations of â€Å"power†, with the most possible different connotations, which change the terms of women’s â€Å"empowerment† out of its usual interpretation of being threatening to the power of the opposite sex. Some of the other interpretations, instead of â€Å"power over†, that she uses are: â€Å"power with†; â€Å"power to†; and â€Å"power within†. The interpretations in these other cases are in a more generic form, such as, â€Å"power with† refers to the collective action of tackling a problem together, â€Å"power to† as generative or productive power, which creates new possibilities and actions. Before I go further into women’s emancipation and their participation in social and political life of the country as cit izens, it is important to look at the power structure in a traditional society. What does women’s â€Å"empowerment† mean in a country where the question of â€Å"women† has been part of clashes between the modernists and the traditionalists, throughout the history? Considering the complexity of the â€Å"power† structure within the Afghan society and womens status within the family, community / tribe and finally the state, this research highlights the fact that womens â€Å"empowerment† cannot be discussed in terms of individuality, but, according to a feminist definition â€Å"in relation to men, women† and the community, not in isolation (Rowland, 1998). Afghan women are not a homogenous class. There are a number of significant socioeconomic factors, which contribute to the diversity of womens emancipation in the Afghan society, such as, age; educational level; and, the urban-rural divide. However, in general, Afghanistan is a traditional society where the notion of power is embedded in the patriarchal nature of the culture: reinforcing male supremacy and control over women to uphold family â€Å"honor† with conformity to accepted â€Å"behavioral norms†, which limits women’s life choices (Dupree, 199 8). As in other contexts, womens empowerment in Afghanistan cannot be discussed in a void, but should develop, through an understanding of the complexity of power and control structures in different layers around women. Stumbling Blocks and stepping stones The problems facing women wishing to run for parliament have been described as the ‘four Cs’- culture, childcare, cash and confidence. (10) The unequal participation of women in power and decision-making structures as the local, national, regional and international levels reflects structural, attitudinal and cultural barriers prevailing in all societies. Stereotypical gender roles remain a major obstacle in women’s political empowerment. On the one major obstacle in women’s political empowerment. One the one hand women are considered unfit for leadership. The public-private domain theory has been used as Vicky Randall observes, â€Å"ideologically to justify women’s exclusion from public politics, while women’s actual confinement to a narrow domestic sphere has been a major brake upon effective political participation. At the same time the public-private convention has masked the crucial interdependence of these spheres. Not only have women’s private roles limited and largely defined their public contribution, but public policies have confirmed their ‘private’ obligations. The impact is that political parties are hesitant to select women candidates from â€Å"winnable† seats. Women are usually fielded from ‘losing’ constituencies where the party does not want to waste a male candidate. â€Å" Male equivalence† the assumption that women access political life with the support, backing and contacts of family, in particular, that of the husband has been a dominant explanation for how women enter political life. It is difficult for women to establish a foothold without patronage from powerful men in the party- that too through close personal relations, as wives, daughters or sisters. The criterion for selection of women in constituency , but other apolitical considerations. Very few of the women in politics have an independent base as their entry point. Most enter politics as a sister, daughter, and wife of some men, who for some reason cannot contest election. A compartmentalization of the stumbling blocks leads us to the following points: social barriers include double responsibilities of women; traditional division of labor where women’s roles are ascriptive; lack of social services and support network; illiteracy; and socialization into gendered roles. Economic barriers may categorized as changes in a global economic market; biased theories and practices of development ; and feminization of poverty. Political barriers include type of electrol system; structures and agendas of political parties; lack of sufficient training and communication skills; and access to technology. Strategies Despite all the roadblocks that are clearly evident, it is possible to imagine and revision a more inclusive political system that allows for all the citizens to be democratically present in the political processes. In view of the need to ensure accommodation of the voice, ideas and the needs of women and to rectify imbalances in political representation, participation as the pre-requisite for facilitating and nurturing leadership is essential. The government must create an enabling environment for active leadership generating participation, which would ensure that women’s voices are heard in Afghanistan. Leadership too needs to be transformational, effecting changes in institutions of governance. Special mechanism must be introduced in order to induct women at all levels of decision-making to ensure that they form a critical mass and contribute to policy planning and implementation. The need is formulate institutional mechanisms and work out concrete measures to ensure and enhance women’s involvement and representations in positions of power and decision-making. Enhancing women’s political representation also entails reviewing of the process of selection of candidates within the political parties. The Beijing +5 Outcome Document too recognized the need to â€Å"encourage the nomination of more women candidates through political parties, quotas or measurable goals, or the other appropriate means for election to parliaments and other legislative structures, to increase their share and contribution in formulation of public policy†. The political parties must honour their commitment to gender justice and equality and ensure women’s representation all all levels of party hierarchy. Women, moreover, need to be actively involved in defining the political, economic, and social agenda. 26 This necessitates enhancing the performance and political skills of those women already in decision-making positions through imparting of formal as well as formal training, which could impart the art of lobbying, raising funds, networking as well as campaigning. Some systematized politicians would benefit new entrants to the political field. Women in senior positions, those who are already at the zenith of power could act as role models and mentors for the struggling ones. A massive grassroots movement must be initiated to change the perceptions of both decision-makers and voters. In this context, there is a need to develop strong linkage with already elected nearly one million grass root women. Lastly, it is absolutely essential to have a fixed time frame for achieving gender parity in political representation, without which governments and political parties cannot be held accountable. Conclusion â€Å"It’s not about simply mainstreaming women. It’s not about women joining the polluted stream. It’s about cleaning the system, changing stagnant pools into fresh flowing waters†. 27 when the interests and voices of half of humanity are not reflected in decision-making processes, the very legitimacy of the institutions, legislative and executive becomes questionable. Women are marginalized in the political process through co-operation, repression, socialization and sabotage. Women have been unable to find or create a space for themselves in decision-making sphere. The discourse, procedures, structures and functioning of political institutions remain heavily skewed in favor of men, as evident from disproportionately small number of women in decision-making bodies. The level of political participation among women in any society acts as a reliable barometer of the health of its system; it is clear that there is a systemic disease. Afghan women’s qualitative as well as quantitative participation at all levels of governance structures is absolutely essential for their empowerment. Bringing women into power is not only a matter of equity, of correcting an adjust and unrepresentative system, but is a means of addressing wider social issues of poverty eradication, employment, health and like, in short, facilitating a just , peaceful and humane social order. It is not an end itself, but a means to effectuate a change in the system. References: 1. CAPWIP , â€Å" Issues in Women’s Political Empowerment in the Asia-Pacific Region†, Proceeding of women in Asia and the Pacific: High-Level Intergovernmental Meeting to Review Regional Implementation of the Beijing Platform for Action, ESCAP, Manila, October 26-29,1999,p.281. 2. Jakarta declaration For the Advancement of Women in Asia and the Pacific, Second Asian and Pacific Ministerial Conference on Women in Development, Jakarta, June 7-14, 1994. 3. Brill Alida. (ed), A Rising Public Voice : Women in Politics Worldwide, New York, N.Y.: The Feminist Press, 1995, p.1. 4. UNIFEM, Progress of the World’s Women 2000: UNIFEM Biennial Report, New York, N.Y.: UNIFEM, 2000, P.9. 5. Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Switzerland, Netherlands are a few examples of countries having more than thirty percent of women in decision-making posts. 6. IPU Website, http://www.ipu.org 7. In 1975, The World Plan of Action, adopted in the First World Conference held in Mexico City, put forward various suggestions, for the recruitment, nomination and promotion of women in various branches of government, public bodies, trade unions and pressure groups: In Copenhagen, in 1980, further steps were recommended to promote international cooperation and strengthen peace through women’s participation. The Nairobi Forward Looking Strategies, adopted in the Third World Conference on Women, Nairobi (1985) stresses that â€Å"Women by virtue of their gender, experience discrimination in terms of equal access to the power structure that controls society and determines development issues and peace initiatives† (Para 46) It was further pointed out that â€Å"For true equality to become a reality for women, the sharing of power on equal terms with men must be a major strategy.† ( para 51) the importance of governmental and non -governmental organizations in educating women to exercise their newly-own civil, political and social rights was emphasized. In this process of consciousness rising, efforts would have to be made to fix definite time-bound targets and even resort to be quota system. 8. Beijing Platform for Action , p 109 9. For details see Beijing Platform for Action, p 109-115. The goal of equal participation of men and women in decision-making as a crucial element to strengthen democracy was equally emphasized by commission on the Status of Women at its 41st session in 1997. The efforts for women’s political empowerment made by governments of Asia and the Pacific were also analyzed at the ESCAP High-level Intergovernmental Meeting to Review Regional Implementation of Beijing Platform for Action , October 26-29,1999, The report reveals that of the 40 countries in region, the proportion of women in the national legislatures increased in 28 countries, declined in 8 and remained the same in 4.Yet women remained in a minority in the legislatures.( Report of ESCAP High-level Intergovernmental Meeting to Review Regional Implementation of the Beijing Platform for Action, October 26-29, 1999 , p.86) 10. The best man for the job? The Selection of Women Parliamentary Candidates,† Finding of the Fawcett Society, February, 1997. Presented at listen to Women’s Vote. 1998, p. 19

Separation of Powers UK

Separation of Powers UK What was the purpose of the ‘separation of powers as originally envisaged? How does it operate in contemporary practice? Note: Headers have been removed to show that word count is not breached by more than 10% To answer these questions I will need to identify a few key concepts, firstly Separation of Powers and what this means- Separation of powers is the idea that the three functions of government: Legislation, execution and adjudication should be dealt with by separate branches of government: Legislature, Executive and Judiciary[1]. When it comes to the phrase ‘Originally envisaged it has to be worked out who is being referred to the- Montesquieu is the person generally linked with the phrase separation of powers which he wrote about in The Spirit of the Laws. I will speak about Montesquieu views in the first section of the essay. ‘Originally Envisaged may however also refer to the views of the founding fathers and in particular those that contributed to the Federalist papers as they wrote numerous times about the importance of the separation of powers. (To tackle how it was originally envisaged I will make reference to documents written by these parties and extensively use q uotes from The Spirit of Laws, The Federalist Papers and the American Constitution to back up my points and to analysis what they originally envisaged) I will write about this in the section after discussing Montesquieu and his views on ‘Separation of powers. These two sections will answer the section of the question on how ‘Separation of Powers was ‘Originally envisaged; I will then discuss what the purpose of ‘Separation of Powers was according with relation to Montesquieu The Founding Fathers. I will then go onto answer the second part of the question- Outlining where ‘Separation of Powers is not being strictly followed and where problems exist within the system and where ‘Separation of Powers is followed in Contemporary America. Montesquieu is an important figure when discussing Separation of Powers due to his book The Spirit of the Laws in which he outlines why the Separation of Powers is necessary and how it should be separated. Montesquieu discusses how ‘Democratic and Aristocratic states are not necessarily free ‘Tis necessary that by the very disposition of things power should be a check to power'[2] In other words there should be checks and balances to ensure Liberty can exist. Ensuring Liberty is a key theme in The Spirit of Laws and could be seen as the purpose of the ‘Separation of powers according to Montesquieu. But to be able to tell if this operates successfully in contemporary practice we must look at we must look at how Montesquieu explains it- he uses the British constitution as his main example[3] seeing the British system as one that was a free state[4]. He sees the reason for this is because of the independence that exists between the different bodies- ‘Legislative , Executive and Judiciary stating that There is no liberty, if the power of judging be not separated from the legislative and executive powers'[5] this system of power being restrained by other powers[6] is the reason according to Montesquieu why the British constitution could ensure Liberty. These regulations on power had in Montesquieus opinion the power to stop corruption or tyranny as he believes that ‘Every man invested with power is apt to abuse it'[7] This is an argument for the separation of powers as the statement ‘Every Man suggests that any person given absolute power will ‘abuse it, It is important to note however this does not mean that Montesquieu favoured democracy he simply believes that as long as there is separation of powers liberty is ensured he even states that most Kingdoms of Europe enjoy moderate government[8] Not because of any democratic principle but because ‘the prince who is invested in the first two powers, leaves the third to hi s subject'[9] (The third power referring to the Judiciary). Montesquieu places much emphasis on judicial independence, which is important to note as it will become relevant when looking at how it operates in contemporary practice as the appointments by the executive to the Supreme Court may be a potential problem. Another point to note within this section is how separate Montesquieu intended the different bodies to be- whilst he stated that they should remain separate he also mentions that if ‘The legislature think itself in danger by some conspiracy against the state It might authorise the executive power, for a short and limited time, to imprison suspected persons'[10] this suggests that whilst Montesquieu believed that separation was necessary he also believed that if necessary the different parts of government should be able to interact in such a way if it is deemed necessary. It is also important to make clear that Separation does not mean that the 3 different parts will not be able to communicate, indeed Montesquieu believes it necessary for example the Judiciary to be informed of law from the legislature and that they must follow the ‘exact letter of the law'[11]. To summarise Montesquieus views on Separation of Powers I would say that he believes that the purpose of the Separation of the three bodies of government is to ensure that power is not abused, however as mentioned previously there are some limitations to this separation which can be summed up by Montesquieu himself ‘Should abuses creep into one part, they can be reformed by those that remain sound'[12]. Montesquieu is important as he heavily influenced the founding fathers during the creation of the American Constitution and it can be seen that the founding fathers have built upon Montesquieus writings in The Spirit of the Laws, It should be noted however that although Montesquieu was the first person to write about the Separation of in the way it is contemporary understood, there are many links to Polybius and the concept of a mixed constitution[13], Polybius also mentions separate branches of government[14] and as such is important to note along with Montesquieu when discussi ng separation of powers. I will now discuss what the Founding fathers (Specifically those involved with the drafting and approval of the constitution) thought of the Separation of powers as how they ‘Originally Envisaged is crucial to answering the second part of the question, this section will be less detailed than the section on Montesquieu as they were heavily influenced by Montesquieu (Which I will prove later) so will share much of the same purpose and views on the Separation of powers. I will look at a few key Documents from the Federalist papers- 47 and 51- and also at the American Constitution, the Constitution should give an insight into what was originally envisaged and the Federalist papers should give more of an insight into what the purpose was. Firstly the American constitution- the phrase ‘Separation of Powers is not found in the constitution however the principles are prevalent throughout it and the influence of the concept of ‘Separation of Powers strong, many of the constitutions of individual states specifically mention the need for separation of powers[15] Notably Virginia- ‘That the legislative, executive, and judicial departments of the Commonwealth should be separate and distinct'[16]. Although the American constitution does not cite anything quite as clear as Virginias section on the Separation of powers the way it is built is clearly shows the influence of Separation of powers with legislative power being granted to Congress in the first article ‘All legislative Powers herein granted shall be vested in a Congress'[17] Similarly Executive power granted to the president ‘The executive Power shall be vested in a President'[18] and Judicial power ‘The judicial Power of the United S tates shall be vested in one supreme Court and in such inferior courts'[19]. It is clear that whilst separation of powers is not mentioned as it is in the Virginian constitution the principle is well and truly understood and represented by the Founding Fathers and the Constitution, these three quotes were taken from the first three articles respectively, so it can safely be assumed that the Separation of Powers in some form or another was an aim of the constitution. So as ‘Originally Envisaged the constitution shows that three distinct branches were considered necessary, with regard to what the purpose of it was we need an insight into what the Founding Fathers considered, and the Federalist papers provide such an insight which is extremely useful when trying to find out the purpose of ‘Separation of powers. I will now discuss the relevance of the Federalist papers and conclude on what they saw the purpose as. The Federalist papers were essentially pieces of propaganda designed to gain support for the constitution[20], they were written by Alexander Hamilton, John Jay and James Madison[21] who were all founding fathers- James Madison is of particular importance as he is considered the Father of the constitution and is said to have played a ‘Pivotal Role in the drafting of the document[22], the papers were published anonymously but the two papers I will be looking at are said to be written by- 47 (Madison) 51 (Either Hamilton or Madison)[23]. The reason I have chosen these two papers is because they both make mention of Separation of powers and as Madison is considered the Father of the constitution it will give an insight into what the purpose of Separation of Powers was as originally envisaged by the Founding Fathers in the Constitution. Firstly Paper 47, this paper by James Madison makes it clear what the purpose of Separation of powers is- it states ‘The preservation of libe rty requires that the three great departments of power should be separate and distinct'[24] so like Montesquieu the purpose is Liberty, this paper also acts to support the idea that Montesquieu was a big influence on the American Constitution with the statement ‘The oracle who is always consulted and cited on this subject is the celebrated Montesquieu'[25], as discussed in the section on Montesquieu there are caveats with the separation of powers and Madison also accepts and discusses these in this paper, using Montesquieu as his guide he considers the British constitution and how the three branches and not completely separate[26]. Paper 51 sets out in more detail how the separation of powers will work and further emphasises his purpose of support for the separation of powers ‘The great difficulty lies in this: you must first enable the government to control the governed; and in the next place oblige it to control itself'[27] the important phrase here it to control itsel f, this shows an understanding of the principle of Checks and Balances as this is the way in which the government can control itself, however the general theme and purpose are shown to be the preservation of liberty. So to summarise this section I would say I have shown how both Montesquieu and the Founding fathers are agreed on the purpose of the separation of powers which is to ensure liberty, and they are both generally agreed on the idea of how this will be done- through checks and balances and the separation of the 3 branches of government, however I feel that there is one substantial difference between Montesquieu and the Founding Fathers views on the issue which is- Whilst Montesquieu makes it clear that it neednt be a democracy to ensure Liberty, Madison states that ‘dependence on the people is, no doubt, the primary control on the government'[28] also Montesquieu believes that there is need for a hereditary body[29] which is not considered by Madison or the founding fathers. To start with I will identify the basics of how it operates, at its simplest level separation of powers can be considered to be the split of the 3 Branches of government into Legislative, Executive and Judiciary[30]- In contemporary America these are split thus: Legislative = Congress- including both the Senate House of Representatives Executive = President Judiciary = Supreme Court and lower courts[31] This system operates in that Executive and Legislative are elected by the public and the Judiciary are appointed by the Executive and approved by the Judiciary[32] (I will critique this as a point where Separation of powers does not exist in a later section). With separation of powers the three branches are to act as a limit to the powers of each other[33] (Checks and Balances) so I will now discuss how this operates in practice, one key way in which this exists is through impeachment, this allows the Legislative to remove the Executive from office ‘for, and Conviction of, Treason, Bribery, or other high Crimes and Misdemeanors.'[34], this could be seen as directly meeting Montesquieus statement: ‘Should abuses creep into one part, they can be reformed by those that remain sound'[35] but it also presents a problem as it means that there is an overlap between the different branches however as I have discussed this does not mean a failure of separation of powers, it can however be considered as a potential weakness as ‘Other High Crimes and Misdemeanors is vague and open to interpretation so the ‘Abuses of power Montesquieu could exist here if the executive were to be removed unfairly by a Legislative with ulterior m otives. With the creation of legislation there are numerous checks and balances on the three branches of government I will attempt to point them all out in the explanation of the passage of a bill becoming law- Laws can come from either chamber of congress- and must be passed in both, this is a check on itself and shows the influence of the British model on the American one (as well as on Montesquieu) through the existence of two chambers in the legislature. If the bill is passed by both Chambers it then must be approved by the Executive- who can either veto it or pass it (Which means that the executive has a check on the power of the Legislature), if the executive vetoes it can be overridden by a 2/3 majority in both Chambers of the legislature, which is a check on the power of the executive. If the bill is passed then it has to be approved by the Supreme Court as being constitutional- which is a check on the power of all the other bodies.[36] As can be seen the amount of checks the separat ion of powers works well here other than with the Supreme Court having no check on it and the ability to outright reject a bill. There are a few quirks in the American system that means Separation of Powers is not as clear cut as it could be one issue being that the vice-president is also the president of the senate[37] which is a clear overlap between the Executive and legislative, however as the Vice-President only has a casting vote[38]and does not have as much power as the president in the executive this can be seen as a technical breach rather than a problematic one. Another breach which is possibly more problematic is the appointment of judges to the Supreme Court- these are appointed by the President and confirmed by the senate[39] whilst the fact that they are confirmed by the senate means that there is a check it also means that all 3 branches overlap in this area, it can create problems for the Executive when previous Presidents have appointed judges of a certain political persuasion which can be seen as an abuse of power and therefore Separation of Powers has not been met. To summarise this essay I would say that the Purpose of the Separation of Powers as Originally Envisaged- Which can refer to either Montesquieu or the Founding Fathers- is in both cases the Preservation of Liberty. Whether or not this operates in contemporary practice is debatable, I have been limited in this essay by attempting to answer two questions that potentially could be questions in their own right, I would like to have been able to explore further the Problems and Quirks but with the word limit of a single essay being imposed on two separate questions had to focus more on the questions at hand rather than being able to discuss these issues. I have attempted to use Primary sources as much as possible- My main references being The Spirit of Laws, American Constitution and The Federalist Papers as I feel that this improves the validity of my points. [1] Heywood, Andrew, (2007), Politics third Edition, Palgrave Foundations, Basingstoke, Hampshire, England Pg. 339 [2] Montesquieu, Carrithers, David Wallace Ed. (1977), The Spirit of Laws, London, England, University of California Press Ltd. Pg. 200 [3] David Boucher Paul Kelly, (2009), Political Thinkers from Socrates to Present, Second Edition, Oxford University Press, Oxford, England Pg. 250 [4] Ibid Pg. 251 [5] Montesquieu, Carrithers, David Wallace Ed. (1977), The Spirit of Laws, London, England, University of California Press Ltd. Pg. 202 [6] David Boucher Paul Kelly, (2009), Political Thinkers from Socrates to Present, Second Edition, Oxford University Press, Oxford, England Pg. 251 [7] Montesquieu, Carrithers, David Wallace Ed. (1977), The Spirit of Laws, London, England, University of California Press Ltd. Pg. 202 [8] Montesquieu, Carrithers, David Wallace Ed. (1977), The Spirit of Laws, London, England, University of California Press Ltd. Pg. 202 [9] Ibid Pg. 202 [10] Ibid Pg.204 [11] Ibid Pg. 203 [12] Ibid Pg. 184 [13] Davis Lloyd, Marshall, Polybius and the Founding Fathers: The Separation of Powers, (Written 22/09/1998 Revised 02/09/2006) Available From: http://www.mlloyd.org/mdl-indx/polybius/intro.htm, (Accessed 12/12/2009) [14] Walbank, F.W., (1990), Polybius, London, England, University of California Press Ltd., Pg. 150 [15] Vile, M.J.C., (1967), Constitutionalism and the separation of powers, Oxford, England, Oxford University Press, Pg. 119 [16] Constitution of Virginia, Article 1 Section 5, Available From http://legis.state.va.us/constitution/a1s5.htm Accessed (12/12/2009) [17] American Constitution Article 1 Section 1, Available From http://www.archives.gov/exhibits/charters/constitution_transcript.html Accessed (12/12/2009) [18] Ibid Article 2 Section 1 [19] Ibid Article 3 Section 1 [20] Dahl, Robert A., (2001), How democratic is the American Constitution?, Yale University Press, United States Pg. 64 [21] Ibid Pg. 64 [22] Library of Congress, http://www.loc.gov/wiseguide/may05/constitution.html, Accessed (12/12/2009) [23] Library of Congress, http://thomas.loc.gov/home/histdox/fedpapers.html, Accessed (12/12/2009) [24] Library of Congress, http://thomas.loc.gov/home/histdox/fed_47.html, Accessed (12/12/2009) [25] Library of Congress, http://thomas.loc.gov/home/histdox/fed_47.html, Accessed (12/12/2009) [26] Ibid [27] Library of Congress, http://thomas.loc.gov/home/histdox/fed_51.html, Accessed (12/12/2009) [28] Library of Congress, http://thomas.loc.gov/home/histdox/fed_47.html, Accessed (12/12/2009) [29] Montesquieu, Carrithers, David Wallace Ed. (1977), The Spirit of Laws, London, England, University of California Press Ltd. Pg. 206 [30] Heywood, Andrew, (2007), Politics third Edition, Palgrave Foundations, Basingstoke, Hampshire, England Pg. 339 [31] American Constitution, Available From http://www.archives.gov/exhibits/charters/constitution_transcript.html Accessed (12/12/2009) [32] McKay, David (2009), American Politics and Society, Blackwell Publishers, Printed in Singapore by C.O.S. Printers Pte Ltd. Pg. 47 [33] David Boucher Paul Kelly, (2009), Political Thinkers from Socrates to Present, Second Edition, Oxford University Press, Oxford, England Pg. 251 [34] American Constitution, Article 2 Section 4, Available From http://www.archives.gov/exhibits/charters/constitution_transcript.html Accessed (12/12/2009) [35] Montesquieu, Carrithers, David Wallace Ed. (1977), The Spirit of Laws, London, England, University of California Press Ltd. Pg. 184 [36] McKay, David (2009), American Politics and Society, Blackwell Publishers, Printed in Singapore by C.O.S. Printers Pte Ltd. Pg. 47 [37] American Constitution, Article 1 Section 3, Available From http://www.archives.gov/exhibits/charters/constitution_transcript.html Accessed (12/12/2009) [38] Ibid [39] McKay, David (2009), American Politics and Society, Blackwell Publishers, Printed in Singapore by C.O.S. Printers Pte Ltd. Pg. 47

Cookies Invading Our Privacy :: Internet Technology Computers

Cookies Invading Our Privacy Cookies now constitute a real threat to personal privacy, but they are perfectly legal. A cookie is a tiny file that a Web sites place on the user’s hard drive when the user accesses the web page. Each cookie has a specific identification number. The cookie can gather personal information such as email addresses, full names, mailing addresses, and phone numbers, and then it sends the information back to the web site (Samborn 26). Whereas TV, radio, and print record only demographics or neighborhoods, a cookie keeps record of what an individual is actually looking at and doing on the net. As a result, Web site operators or companies are able to build very detailed profiles from that behavior (Green 48). These profiles play a major role in online marketing. In the past, marketers knew their customers just as a number, but when DoubleClick, an Internet advertising company, bought out Abacus Direct, DoubleClick was able to combine its databases with the names and addresses form Abacus’ catalog customers. Now web surfers can no longer surf the net without their computers being tagged to their names. (Quinn 63) Even more disturbing, hackers can now intercept the data from the cookie. With a specially constructed URL, a hacker can read cookies from any domain because the special URL fools a computer into thinking that the hacker’s computer is the domain site. As things stand now, Federal laws are far from clear when it comes to what cookies can collect and how the information can be used. According to US Sen. Robert Torricelli, â€Å"Congress has considered several privacy bills in the past few years, but only one, the Children’s Online Privacy Protection Act, has been passed† (Samborn 27). This problem is only going to escalate if something isn’t done to limit what Internet sites and marketing agencies can collect from people surfing the Web. Cookies Invading Our Privacy :: Internet Technology Computers Cookies Invading Our Privacy Cookies now constitute a real threat to personal privacy, but they are perfectly legal. A cookie is a tiny file that a Web sites place on the user’s hard drive when the user accesses the web page. Each cookie has a specific identification number. The cookie can gather personal information such as email addresses, full names, mailing addresses, and phone numbers, and then it sends the information back to the web site (Samborn 26). Whereas TV, radio, and print record only demographics or neighborhoods, a cookie keeps record of what an individual is actually looking at and doing on the net. As a result, Web site operators or companies are able to build very detailed profiles from that behavior (Green 48). These profiles play a major role in online marketing. In the past, marketers knew their customers just as a number, but when DoubleClick, an Internet advertising company, bought out Abacus Direct, DoubleClick was able to combine its databases with the names and addresses form Abacus’ catalog customers. Now web surfers can no longer surf the net without their computers being tagged to their names. (Quinn 63) Even more disturbing, hackers can now intercept the data from the cookie. With a specially constructed URL, a hacker can read cookies from any domain because the special URL fools a computer into thinking that the hacker’s computer is the domain site. As things stand now, Federal laws are far from clear when it comes to what cookies can collect and how the information can be used. According to US Sen. Robert Torricelli, â€Å"Congress has considered several privacy bills in the past few years, but only one, the Children’s Online Privacy Protection Act, has been passed† (Samborn 27). This problem is only going to escalate if something isn’t done to limit what Internet sites and marketing agencies can collect from people surfing the Web.